-- estrazione dei dati di bilancio dalla tassonomia XBRL italianaSELECT f.codice_fiscale,       f.anno,SUM(CASEWHEN f.concetto = 'itcc-ci:TotaleValoreProduzione'THEN f.valore END) AS valore_produzione,SUM(CASEWHEN f.concetto = 'itcc-ci:CostiProduzionePersonaleTotale'THEN f.valore END) AS costo_personale,SUM(CASEWHEN f.concetto = 'itcc-ci:AmmortamentiSvalutazioniTotale'THEN f.valore END) AS ammortamenti,SUM(CASEWHEN f.concetto = 'itcc-ci:DebitiTotaleDebiti'THEN f.valore END) AS debitiFROM   xbrl_fatti AS fWHERE  f.contesto = 'esercizio_corrente'AND  f.anno BETWEEN2022AND2025GROUPBY f.codice_fiscale, f.annoORDERBY f.anno DESC;# leibniz/valutazione/modello.pyimport numpy as npfrom leibniz.dati import carica_bilanci_xbrl, carica_comparabilifrom leibniz.ia import ModelloSettorialefrom leibniz.core import enterprise_valuedef multiplo_ev_ebitda(settore: str, anno: int) -> float:    campione = carica_comparabili(settore, anno)    multipli = [c.ev / c.ebitda for c in campione if c.ebitda > 0]returnfloat(np.median(multipli))def simulazione_monte_carlo(fcf_base, wacc, g, n=10_000, seed=42):    rng = np.random.default_rng(seed)    crescita = rng.normal(g, 0.005, n)    tassi = rng.normal(wacc, 0.01, n)    ev = [enterprise_value(fcf_base, w, c) for w, c in zip(tassi, crescita)]return np.percentile(ev, [10, 50, 90])bilanci = carica_bilanci_xbrl(codice_fiscale, anni=range(2022, 2026))modello = ModelloSettoriale.carica("ateco-2025", versione="3.2")segnali = modello.analizza(bilanci, indicatori=["dscr", "pfn_ebitda", "rotazione_crediti"])p10, p50, p90 = simulazione_monte_carlo(segnali.fcf, wacc=0.0874, g=0.02)/* leibniz/core/cashflow.c */#include <math.h>#include"bilancio.h"#define ALIQUOTA_FISCALE 0.279typedefstruct {double ebit;double ammortamenti;double capex;double delta_ccn;} FlussiOperativi;double fcff(const FlussiOperativi *f){double nopat = f->ebit * (1.0 - ALIQUOTA_FISCALE);return nopat + f->ammortamenti - f->capex - f->delta_ccn;}double valore_terminale(double fcf_n, double wacc, double g){if (wacc <= g) return NAN;return fcf_n * (1.0 + g) / (wacc - g);}double enterprise_value(constdouble *fcf, int anni, double wacc, double g){double ev = 0.0;for (int t = 0; t < anni; t++)        ev += fcf[t] / pow(1.0 + wacc, t + 1);    ev += valore_terminale(fcf[anni - 1], wacc, g) / pow(1.0 + wacc, anni);return ev;}double delta_ccn(const StatoPatrimoniale *sp, const StatoPatrimoniale *prec){double ccn = sp->crediti_commerciali + sp->rimanenze - sp->debiti_fornitori;double ccn_prec = prec->crediti_commerciali + prec->rimanenze - prec->debiti_fornitori;return ccn - ccn_prec;}

package it.progemafin.leibniz.analisi;import java.math.BigDecimal;import java.math.RoundingMode;publicfinalclass RiclassificazioneBilancio {privatestaticfinal BigDecimal ALIQUOTA = new BigDecimal("0.279");public ContoEconomicoRiclassificato aValoreAggiunto(Bilancio b) {        BigDecimal valoreProduzione = b.ricavi()            .add(b.variazioneRimanenze())            .add(b.altriRicavi());        BigDecimal valoreAggiunto = valoreProduzione            .subtract(b.costiMateriePrime())            .subtract(b.costiServizi())            .subtract(b.godimentoBeniTerzi());        BigDecimal ebitda = valoreAggiunto.subtract(b.costoPersonale());        BigDecimal ebit = ebitda            .subtract(b.ammortamenti())            .subtract(b.svalutazioni());returnnew ContoEconomicoRiclassificato(valoreProduzione, valoreAggiunto, ebitda, ebit);    }public BigDecimal posizioneFinanziariaNetta(StatoPatrimoniale sp) {return sp.debitiVersoBanche()            .add(sp.debitiVersoAltriFinanziatori())            .add(sp.obbligazioni())            .subtract(sp.disponibilitaLiquide())            .subtract(sp.attivitaFinanziarieCorrenti());    }public BigDecimal dscr(FlussiDiCassa f, ServizioDebito s) {        BigDecimal servizio = s.quotaCapitale().add(s.interessi());if (servizio.signum() == 0) returnnull;return f.flussoOperativo().divide(servizio, 4, RoundingMode.HALF_UP);    }public BigDecimal margineEbitda(ContoEconomicoRiclassificato ce) {return ce.ebitda().divide(ce.valoreProduzione(), 4, RoundingMode.HALF_UP);    }}-- estrazione dei dati di bilancio dalla tassonomia XBRL italianaSELECT f.codice_fiscale,       f.anno,SUM(CASEWHEN f.concetto = 'itcc-ci:TotaleValoreProduzione'THEN f.valore END) AS valore_produzione,SUM(CASEWHEN f.concetto = 'itcc-ci:CostiProduzionePersonaleTotale'THEN f.valore END) AS costo_personale,SUM(CASEWHEN f.concetto = 'itcc-ci:AmmortamentiSvalutazioniTotale'THEN f.valore END) AS ammortamenti,SUM(CASEWHEN f.concetto = 'itcc-ci:DebitiTotaleDebiti'THEN f.valore END) AS debitiFROM   xbrl_fatti AS fWHERE  f.contesto = 'esercizio_corrente'AND  f.anno BETWEEN2022AND2025GROUPBY f.codice_fiscale, f.annoORDERBY f.anno DESC;

package it.progemafin.leibniz.analisi;import java.math.BigDecimal;import java.math.RoundingMode;publicfinalclass RiclassificazioneBilancio {privatestaticfinal BigDecimal ALIQUOTA = new BigDecimal("0.279");public ContoEconomicoRiclassificato aValoreAggiunto(Bilancio b) {        BigDecimal valoreProduzione = b.ricavi()            .add(b.variazioneRimanenze())            .add(b.altriRicavi());        BigDecimal valoreAggiunto = valoreProduzione            .subtract(b.costiMateriePrime())            .subtract(b.costiServizi())            .subtract(b.godimentoBeniTerzi());        BigDecimal ebitda = valoreAggiunto.subtract(b.costoPersonale());        BigDecimal ebit = ebitda            .subtract(b.ammortamenti())            .subtract(b.svalutazioni());returnnew ContoEconomicoRiclassificato(valoreProduzione, valoreAggiunto, ebitda, ebit);    }public BigDecimal posizioneFinanziariaNetta(StatoPatrimoniale sp) {return sp.debitiVersoBanche()            .add(sp.debitiVersoAltriFinanziatori())            .add(sp.obbligazioni())            .subtract(sp.disponibilitaLiquide())            .subtract(sp.attivitaFinanziarieCorrenti());    }public BigDecimal dscr(FlussiDiCassa f, ServizioDebito s) {        BigDecimal servizio = s.quotaCapitale().add(s.interessi());if (servizio.signum() == 0) returnnull;return f.flussoOperativo().divide(servizio, 4, RoundingMode.HALF_UP);    }public BigDecimal margineEbitda(ContoEconomicoRiclassificato ce) {return ce.ebitda().divide(ce.valoreProduzione(), 4, RoundingMode.HALF_UP);    }}/* leibniz/core/cashflow.c */#include <math.h>#include"bilancio.h"#define ALIQUOTA_FISCALE 0.279typedefstruct {double ebit;double ammortamenti;double capex;double delta_ccn;} FlussiOperativi;double fcff(const FlussiOperativi *f){double nopat = f->ebit * (1.0 - ALIQUOTA_FISCALE);return nopat + f->ammortamenti - f->capex - f->delta_ccn;}double valore_terminale(double fcf_n, double wacc, double g){if (wacc <= g) return NAN;return fcf_n * (1.0 + g) / (wacc - g);}double enterprise_value(constdouble *fcf, int anni, double wacc, double g){double ev = 0.0;for (int t = 0; t < anni; t++)        ev += fcf[t] / pow(1.0 + wacc, t + 1);    ev += valore_terminale(fcf[anni - 1], wacc, g) / pow(1.0 + wacc, anni);return ev;}double delta_ccn(const StatoPatrimoniale *sp, const StatoPatrimoniale *prec){double ccn = sp->crediti_commerciali + sp->rimanenze - sp->debiti_fornitori;double ccn_prec = prec->crediti_commerciali + prec->rimanenze - prec->debiti_fornitori;return ccn - ccn_prec;}# leibniz/valutazione/modello.pyimport numpy as npfrom leibniz.dati import carica_bilanci_xbrl, carica_comparabilifrom leibniz.ia import ModelloSettorialefrom leibniz.core import enterprise_valuedef multiplo_ev_ebitda(settore: str, anno: int) -> float:    campione = carica_comparabili(settore, anno)    multipli = [c.ev / c.ebitda for c in campione if c.ebitda > 0]returnfloat(np.median(multipli))def simulazione_monte_carlo(fcf_base, wacc, g, n=10_000, seed=42):    rng = np.random.default_rng(seed)    crescita = rng.normal(g, 0.005, n)    tassi = rng.normal(wacc, 0.01, n)    ev = [enterprise_value(fcf_base, w, c) for w, c in zip(tassi, crescita)]return np.percentile(ev, [10, 50, 90])bilanci = carica_bilanci_xbrl(codice_fiscale, anni=range(2022, 2026))modello = ModelloSettoriale.carica("ateco-2025", versione="3.2")segnali = modello.analizza(bilanci, indicatori=["dscr", "pfn_ebitda", "rotazione_crediti"])p10, p50, p90 = simulazione_monte_carlo(segnali.fcf, wacc=0.0874, g=0.02)

leibniz> analisi avviata   bilanci=1284   esercizi=2022..2025leibniz> riclassificazione a valore aggiunto ......... okleibniz> flussi di cassa FCFF / FCFE ................. ok  ebitda_margin   = 0.1418  pfn_su_ebitda   = 2.31  dscr            = 1.47  wacc            = 0.0874  g_terminale     = 0.0200  ev_p50          = 12640000leibniz> modello settoriale ateco-2025 v3.2 ........ in corsoleibniz> scenari Monte Carlo  n=10000  ev_p10          = 10910000  ev_p90          = 14380000leibniz> report di sintesi in preparazione/* leibniz/core/cashflow.c */#include <math.h>#include"bilancio.h"#define ALIQUOTA_FISCALE 0.279typedefstruct {double ebit;double ammortamenti;double capex;double delta_ccn;} FlussiOperativi;double fcff(const FlussiOperativi *f){double nopat = f->ebit * (1.0 - ALIQUOTA_FISCALE);return nopat + f->ammortamenti - f->capex - f->delta_ccn;}double valore_terminale(double fcf_n, double wacc, double g){if (wacc <= g) return NAN;return fcf_n * (1.0 + g) / (wacc - g);}double enterprise_value(constdouble *fcf, int anni, double wacc, double g){double ev = 0.0;for (int t = 0; t < anni; t++)        ev += fcf[t] / pow(1.0 + wacc, t + 1);    ev += valore_terminale(fcf[anni - 1], wacc, g) / pow(1.0 + wacc, anni);return ev;}double delta_ccn(const StatoPatrimoniale *sp, const StatoPatrimoniale *prec){double ccn = sp->crediti_commerciali + sp->rimanenze - sp->debiti_fornitori;double ccn_prec = prec->crediti_commerciali + prec->rimanenze - prec->debiti_fornitori;return ccn - ccn_prec;}leibniz> analisi avviata   bilanci=1284   esercizi=2022..2025leibniz> riclassificazione a valore aggiunto ......... okleibniz> flussi di cassa FCFF / FCFE ................. ok  ebitda_margin   = 0.1418  pfn_su_ebitda   = 2.31  dscr            = 1.47  wacc            = 0.0874  g_terminale     = 0.0200  ev_p50          = 12640000leibniz> modello settoriale ateco-2025 v3.2 ........ in corsoleibniz> scenari Monte Carlo  n=10000  ev_p10          = 10910000  ev_p90          = 14380000leibniz> report di sintesi in preparazione# leibniz/valutazione/modello.pyimport numpy as npfrom leibniz.dati import carica_bilanci_xbrl, carica_comparabilifrom leibniz.ia import ModelloSettorialefrom leibniz.core import enterprise_valuedef multiplo_ev_ebitda(settore: str, anno: int) -> float:    campione = carica_comparabili(settore, anno)    multipli = [c.ev / c.ebitda for c in campione if c.ebitda > 0]returnfloat(np.median(multipli))def simulazione_monte_carlo(fcf_base, wacc, g, n=10_000, seed=42):    rng = np.random.default_rng(seed)    crescita = rng.normal(g, 0.005, n)    tassi = rng.normal(wacc, 0.01, n)    ev = [enterprise_value(fcf_base, w, c) for w, c in zip(tassi, crescita)]return np.percentile(ev, [10, 50, 90])bilanci = carica_bilanci_xbrl(codice_fiscale, anni=range(2022, 2026))modello = ModelloSettoriale.carica("ateco-2025", versione="3.2")segnali = modello.analizza(bilanci, indicatori=["dscr", "pfn_ebitda", "rotazione_crediti"])p10, p50, p90 = simulazione_monte_carlo(segnali.fcf, wacc=0.0874, g=0.02)

Insights

LOI: what a letter of intent should clarify in an acquisition

Services and guides

Clear terms and an organised investigation process to move negotiations forward

A letter of intent (LOI) records terms of a possible acquisition and defines the route towards the definitive agreement. It helps clarify which points are shared, which still require investigation and how negotiations will be organised.

In a business acquisition, the question is not simply ‘how much will be paid?’. The parties need to understand what is being bought, the information behind the price, the checks to be performed and the conditions that must be satisfied.

What the letter of intent should cover

Parties and scope: who is involved and whether the transaction concerns shares, a business, a business unit or a partial interest.
Economic terms: price or the way it will be determined, assumptions about financial debt and cash, and possible adjustments.
Payment: amounts due at closing, deferrals and other components.
Due diligence: scope of the investigations, document availability, responsibilities and timetable.
Conditions: financing, authorisations, approvals and other steps to complete.
Negotiation arrangements: communications, allocation of costs, confidentiality and any exclusivity.
Duration and conclusion of the stage: deadlines, extensions and matters still open.

Is an LOI binding?

The agreement must be read as a whole, considering content, the parties’ common intention and their conduct. An LOI may contain indicative terms and binding clauses, such as confidentiality, exclusivity or allocation of costs. Its title alone does not establish that a commitment to the transaction is always excluded: that point must be clear from the text and context.

Under Italian law, negotiations must be conducted in good faith even before an obligation to buy has been assumed. Make the document’s intended effects explicit and have its commitments checked before signing.

Exclusivity: assess the work and the time needed

Exclusivity can give the buyer time to investigate and commit resources while limiting the seller’s ability to negotiate with others on the agreed terms. Assess it together with the timetable and information available.

Before agreeing, consider which documents are ready, who must review them and what could slow progress. A period chosen without a work programme may expire without advancing the transaction. Define duration, extensions and the consequences of expiry clearly.

An example of a point to clarify before signing

The parties agree on an amount, but one means enterprise value, the value of the operating business, while the other means the price of the shares. The bridge must explain how financial debt, cash and other adjustments will be treated. If the distinction remains implicit, it will resurface during due diligence.

The LOI should make the agreed basis explicit and identify information that may change the price. This example explains how to read the document; it does not determine a price or replace a business valuation.

LOI, NBO and the definitive agreement

An NBO may precede the LOI and present an initial proposal. The LOI may then organise terms and investigations, although the two functions are not always separate. The definitive agreement governs the transaction on the agreed terms. Its signing may coincide with closing or take place earlier if conditions remain to be satisfied. Transfer and payment follow the agreement.

Our guides on buying and selling a business explain where these documents fit into the wider process.

A checklist before signing

Can I distinguish agreed points from matters still subject to investigation?
Are price, scope, reference date and payment described consistently?
Do we have the resources and documents to meet the due diligence timetable?
Do I understand commitments on confidentiality, exclusivity and costs?
Is it clear what happens if the investigations do not allow the parties to proceed?

To prepare the next step, describe your objectives and the stage of the transaction. We can identify the financial information and contractual work needed to move forward.

English editorial version based on the Italian texts by Andrea Ricciardi, Italian chartered accountant (Studio Ricciardi).

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